The Changes of Confinement Period Food Intake and Food Practices Amongst Indian Women in Kuala Kubu Bharu

Author: Iloka Benneth Chiemelie
Published: 1/4/2014

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1.            Background

On a very simple term, confinement is used to describe a period in which an individual is not allowed to leave the home. The implication is that the person must stay indoors and stick with either the orders to do so or personal decision to do so. This is not a scare practice (especially amongst women) as there are numerous reasons that can subsequently influence the decision to be confined in one place.

Conferment is most common amongst women, and the reason for such is because of the fact that most of the common reasons (besides crime) why people are confined to a specific place can be linked to women. For instance, after giving birth to a child, a woman is expected to stay back home and take care of the paper and not allowed to leave the house for whatsoever reason. On the same note, a woman is also expected to stay back home within few months to giving birth. Additionally, women are expected to be confined in a given place for some certain periods following the death of their spouse. Confinement is also a product of cultural belief and might, as well as values. For instance, in order to ensure that women meet certain standard s for marriage as well as obey the religious customs, Muslim women are usually confined prior to marriage and even when they are allowed outside, they are allowed on the conditions that they must cover their whole body.

As such, the question is no longer as to whether condiment is possible, instead it is more about what are the activities that women undertake while under condiment. In order to maintain sustainability, women have to eat as well as drink. This is because; food will provide them with the necessary dietary mark-ups to ensure good health and long life.

Sonia, G., Martha, B., Dennis, E., Natasha, B. S., &Urmila, P (2004) presented an analysis of how culture influences food intake in Asian communities and how such practices also influences their health. In the analysis, a broad definition of practices and cultural norms related to food intake in Indian culture were presented. The presentation highlighted that the governing element in the life of Indian families is religion, with approximately 80% of Indians practising Hinduism. Under the Hinduism tradition, the approach towards prayer, ritual cleansing, social order, and harmony in the family are based on the teachings of the religion. This teachings are centred on the belief of “Karma”, which is a description used to present the idea that no matter what you do today, you will reap the end product tomorrow – or simply put as “what goes around comes around”. The Bindi which is normally worn by Indian women is used to signify honour, intelligence, and marriage in the past, but it has become more of an ornament in the present. Thus, the idea that food practices as well are based on religious teachings becomes predominant.

The structure of families in Indian is based on multi-generational entities, where respect for elders is highly valued. After marriage, the woman normally moves in with the families of her husband, and gender role is very distinct. It is the role of women to manage the house, finances, and family, while the men are more outside with the conduction of their chores as breadwinners. Children are usually raised by their grandparents. In accordance with the discussion presented in this paragraph, it can easily be seen that the religious practices of Indian people in terms of respect for their elders and living with their husband’s family after marriage will directly influence their eating pattern. This is because, the people of Indian strong value that men are more powerful than women, and the end point becomes that women are expected under all circumstances irrespective of the personal pains it might cause in certain time to respect the view of their husband.

Following numerous cases of chronic diseases that are spreading across the world and the subsequent rise of obesity and other food related diseases, there is an increase on the conception that changes in food intake pattern and practice is necessary in order to ensure that the negativities highlighted above don’t impact on lives of people. Most of the changes in food intake pattern and practices have focused on a more safety approach to consumption, in which the consumers tend to be very careful about the nutritious level and contents of the foods they consume. However, it can also be argued that the conventional food safety is not capable of prevent the occurrence of food-borne diseases. As such, it is possible that consumers have the potential, by adopting poor food safety practices, turnaround most of the efforts inputted by the manufacturer in the production of safe foods (Simpson, 1993:4; Jay et aI., 1999a:921). Putting into consideration the fact that the food chain is becoming increasingly complicated, consumers now have higher responsibility in relation to managing the safety of their foods (Hudson & Hartwell, 2002:165). Such increase in responsibility will entail a change in their food intake pattern and practices, in relation to ensuring that they don’t by their own actions put to their health to risk as a result of their poor consumption patter, however, it has been concluded y researches that are investigating on consumers’ food practices that most of the consumers are not likely to  have gained training on the processes involved in ensuring food safety and this can directly limit their knowledge as well as skills in relation to food preparation and consumption patterns (Beard, 1991:123; Griffith &Worsfold, 1994:201; Knabel, 1995:121). However, it is clear that good food intake practices and patterns have the potential of reducing and possibly eliminating the potential of food-borne diseases (Bennion&Scheule, 2004:57).

Based on previous researches that have investigated on the factors that influences poor food intake practices and patters (Gettings& Kiernan, 2001:148), it seems that most of the poor practices and patterns are undertaken by people between the ages of 18-29 (Klontz et aI., 1995:972; Altekruse et al.,1996:287)., and this group falls directly in the age that are normally under confinement in both Indian and other Asian cultures.

Although there are quite a number of researches undertaken in relation to food intake practices and patter in in the United States of America (USA) (Williamson et aI., 1992:94; Fein et aI., 1995:1405; Altekruse et aI., 1996:287; Yang et aI., 1998:S33; Shiferaw et aI., 2000:1538; Meer &Misner, 2000:1725; U-Cohen & Bruhn, 2002:1287; Anderson et aI., 2004:186), the United Kingdom (UK) and Ireland (Worsfold& Griffith, 1997a:399; Gorman et aI., 2002:143; Hudson & Hartwell, 2002:165; Clayton et aI., 2003a:434), Canada (Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 1998:1). Australia (Jay et aI., 1999a:921; Jay et aI., 1999b:1285) and Jamaica (Knight et aI., 2003:309), it seems there are only few number of studies undertaken in Malaysia in relation to the above stated topic. The implication is that it makes gathering data for this study difficult, but it doesn’t eliminate the potential of data gathering in the sense that some of these studies conducted have also tried to understand the concept food intake patter and practices amongst Indian women.  An example of such study is that which was conducted by Sonia, G., Martha, B., Dennis, E., Natasha, B. S., and Urmila, P (2004) that tried to link food intake practices and patterns to religious belief and norms. However, it can still be argued that the food intake patterns of Indian women in the USA, where this study was conducted can actually be different from what is obtainable in Malaysia.

Researches have also shown that young adult women have high need to maintain high nutritional level, but their lifestyle can greatly influence their food intake patter and practices significantly (Hampi& Belts, 1995:893; Dinger &Waigandt, 1997:360; Gillis & Williams, 2002:1). While there is no direct link or description of the women in this study yet, it has to believed that considering the fact that women under confined are usually in their young adult age, the above description fits perfectly for the topic under study.

On a more diseases based insight, it has widely been conceived that the eating patter of young adults influence their health significantly in their later lives (Guyton et aI., 1989:11; Horwath, 1991 :395; Beerman, 1991 :343). Numerous health risk that people will face in the future have been linked to their current eating patter; and such risk include the risk of developing some kinds of cancer, the risk of coronary heart disease, non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus and osteoporosis (Klemmer, 2002:97; Hizza&Gerrior, 2002:3), and this risk can be lessened if the individual are able to change their poor food intake pattern and practices. On the same food related influence on health note, food safety and nutrition are interrelated based on the fact that food intake pattern has the potential of inducing pathogenic food diseases, which will then result in reduced appetite and subsequently reduce the absorption of nutrients (Woteki et aI., 2001 :S502).

From the above background review, it becomes easily evident that there is an increasing change in food intake pattern, and such change is tailored toward a more safety food consumption pattern and practices, in which the consumers adopts necessary approaches to ensure that the food they eat are prepared under the right hygienic conditions and also consumed in a similar hygienic condition. The end point is that current conditions calls for a healthy eating pattern as it has been understood that the current eating pattern will determine the level of health that the consumer will have in the future.

Most of the studies are also based on women, with special reference to Indians, but the indication is that there seems to be no literature undertake in line with the topic of discussion, and this paper will serve as one of the existing (if not the only existing) literature undertake to understand the changes in food consumption practices and patterns amongst Indian women in Malaysia - with reference to women under confinement and residing in Kuala KubuBharu.

1.2.            Problem statement

Since the 1990s, there have been numerous studies undertaken to understand the changes in food consumption patterns and practices amongst young women (Beerman et aI., 1990:215; Horwath, 1991:395; Georgiou &Arquitt, 1992:358; Eves et aI., 1994:363; Cotunga& Vickery, 1994:417; Mitchell et aI., 1994:A52; Hertzler et aI., 1995:49; Fennell, 1997:109; Meilman et aI., 1997:201; Rangan et aI., 1997:110; Haberman&Luffey, 1998:189; Chapman et aI., 1998:176; Lowry et aI., 2000:18; Anding et aI., 2001:167; DeBate et aI., 2001:819; Edwards &Meiselman, 2003:21), and these studies have focused on investigating the dietary habit of the people being reviewed.

In all societies, the life of people residing in the society is very important and a critical matter of concern. The main reason for the statement is based on the fact that the lifestyle of people influences not only their present health, but also their wellbeing, and habits that are built up during early years can continue to be the guiding principle in the person’s attitude for the later of his or her life (Haberman&Luffey, 1998:189).Considering this fact, it become evident that the need to investigate the changes in food pattern and practices is very important in the society; as it can help to define the new attitudes and behaviour that is being adopted in the society in relation to food consumption. On that same ground, the therapist will be better positioned to draft the right measure for handling issues in which the changes have potential of yielding more positive than negative influence.

The food intake patter is very significant in the sense that it is a predominant force used to measure what is being consumed today as to how it will influence the potential for consumption tomorrow. For instance, if too much sugar is consumed today, the risk of diabetes is increased and the subsequent result will be a demand for decrease in sugar consumption for tomorrow. As such, it is important to maintain balance in the level of food consumption as it will help to maintain good health and longer life.

While all these points have been identified as important, there is an increase in the consumption of junk foods, which is influenced highly by the current living conditions in which the production pattern is now more preservative based as companies seek to adopt economies of large scale production and increase in globalization to enhance their financial performance. Considering the fact that the “business of every business” as have been argued by researches is “purely business,” it can also be argued that the manufacturers will have little time to study the impact of their production pattern on the consumption patter of people in the society, and the influence such pattern might have on the sustainability of the human race.

The problem then become understanding the right food intake patterns and practices that will potentially increase the sustainability of the subjects being studied in the future; through an adoption of the right approach presently. This very significant in cases where the women are under confinement because women under confinement don’t have the opportunity of tracking around the streets like the working women do, as such their calories level can easily increase because of their lack of exercise. Additionally, people under confinement don’t have the necessary guidance and caution that is available when they are left to move around on their own freely. For instance, when people are under confinement, they are can eat whatever they desire, and they have little caution from people because they are usually alone. On the same hand, they dedicate little time for exercise. Thus, this is the main problem in this paper.

1.3.            Importance of study

The above discussions are of the view that they have a recent change in the consumption pattern and practices in food intake, and the change has been more toward a healthy practice. While there are studies that suggest healthy consumption patterns and practices at the moment to be linked to healthy life in the future in relation to young women in general and Indian women in particular  reference as described in the above background overview, none of these studies seeks to understand or relate the topic to Indian women in confinement. As such, this paper is very significant for a number of reasons as described below:

Academic significance – on the academic level, this paper is very significant in the sense that it is the first of its kind to explore the case of food intake patterns and practices as it changes amongst Indian women under confinement in Kuala KubuBharu Malaysia. Thus, this paper will provide insight into the concept of food intake changes as it occurs amongst Indian women in Malaysia with reference to Kuala KubuBharu. On the same note, this paper will also serve as the background for critiquing existing theories in the field of food intake and nutrition, as well as how Indian culture influences food consumption pattern. Still on the academic benefits, this paper will serve as the background for development of new theories and conducting new researches in the field of study or in other related fields. Additionally, it will provide insightful knowledge to the readers about the changing patterns and practices in food intake, as well as how culture influences food patter and intake.

Practical significance – earlier discussion have also highlighted that the business of every business is business, and the implication is that corporations across the world constantly seek for new ways to advance their productivity in order to further enhance their profitability and business performance. As such, companies are willing to have more insight on ways to improve their productivity and customer satisfaction in order for further improves their performance. As such, this paper is very significance to them in the sense that understanding the changes in consumption pattern and practice will help them to determine the best products to produce and for Indian communities in Malaysia. Such an understanding is necessary because

1.4.            Research purpose

The summary of the discussions above can be argued to be that there is a current change in the food intake patterns and practices especially amongst women, and understanding such changes is very important in order to design the right approach to handling issues that are related to poor intake practices and patterns. As such, it can be argued that the main concern is on how to improve a more positive pattern and practice in food consumption and help create a society in which food related diseases are reduced significantly. This is most significant in the case of women in confinement because; they have a lot of freedom to consumption and exercise little when compared with other women that are not in confinement. As such, the purpose of this study is basically divided into three sections as:

To understand the changes in food intake pattern and practice – this is the main purpose of this paper, and it is coined in the title as well. This paper seeks to understand the recent changes in food intake practices and pattern on a general ground. This purpose will be discussed in detail in the review of literature.

To understand factors that influence changes in intake pattern and practice – based on the identifications above as to the changes in food intake pattern and practice, the second section will seek to understand the factors that influence such changes. Such an understanding is very important as it will help to draft new counter measures can be either used to enhance or mitigate the influence yielded on the change process by these factors.

To understand the change in the food intake pattern and practices of Indian women in confinement with a special case reference to Indian women residing in Kuala KubuBahru – this is actually the main research topic, but it is presented as the third objective because of the fact that in order to understand the research question, it is important for the two factors discussed above to be understood as they will serve as the background for developing the research paper and constructing questionnaire that will be used for the study.

1.5.            Research questions

In order to achieve the purpose of the research as described above, this paper will look to address a number of questions that are related to the topic of discussion and the questions will be loaded into defining new paradigms in the research purpose as:

1.                  What are the changes in food intake patterns and practices?

2.                  What factors influences these changes?

3.                  How does these changes relate to the changes in the food intake patterns and practices of Indian women residing in Kuala Bharu that are under confinement?

1.6.            Limitations

No matter the ground form which the whole research paper is developed, it must be acknowledge that there is nothing like a perfect research. The implication is that notwithstanding the level of efforts that might be inputted into undertaking any given research topic, there are still some factors that limits the findings from the research and as such it is important to understand such factors in order to define new paradigm for handing outcomes of the research and applying the findings in real life scenarios. For this paper, a number of limitations prevail, but what is significant is that none of these limitations actually contribute negatively to the outcome of the paper’s overall value. However, the limitations of the research topic are:

Limited scope – this is the main area in which the research is limited, and it is based on the fact that the scope of the study is actually limited. This is because, while there are numerous factors that impact consumption patterns and approaches such as the food intake pattern, choice of restaurants, best cuisines, food hygiene, affordability of foods and so much more, this paper is based only on the food intake pattern and practices. To make the case more complicated is the fact that the paper also seeks to address only Indian women that reside in Kuala KubuBharu. The implication of this limited scope is that the applicability of finding will also be limited I the sense that the cases to be address as well as findings to be presented in this paper will actually be guaranteed to yield significant effect on the women that reside in the region where the study was undertaking. Any other application outside the region is not guaranteed to yield any significant influence on the subject in which the finding has been applied to.

In any case, this limitation is not considered a weakness because, the paper has been developed to undertake the study on the research topic, which is centred towards understanding the changes in food pattern and consumption only amongst Indian women that reside in Kuala KubuBharu. As such, this narrow scope can actually be considered to be an advantage in the sense that it will ensure that the finding is actually applicable to specific group of people. Additionally, the narrow level of responders makes information gathering easier as well as increase the level of reliability in the sense that the information can easily be linked to specific people in the region of study. A more broad concept is based on the fact that although this paper might be stated to be focused on only Indian women in Kuala KubuBharu, the fact still remains that Indian women largely have a common culture and practice in life and this is based their religious view – which makes the limitations void.

1.6.      Organisation of study

In consideration of the fact that this paper has been designed with the right measures to ensure that the finding is capable of influencing positively on the existing theories and practices in both the academic and business world, it must be argued that in order to ensure that the paper meets this high objective, then there is a need for the writer to adopt necessary measures that will influence the research processes positively and ensure that the end product is in line with the whole designed objectives. On that note, this paper will be organized into five different sections.

The first section will be an introduction of the paper, which will look to understand the research topic in relation to background overview of what the topic is all about. This section also contained the research purpose and questions that must be addressed in order to meet the research objectives. Overall, this section serves as a background of the whole research process in relation to what will be done and how it will be done.

The second section is the literature review, and this section is focused more on providing theoretical framework and concepts for the whole research process. This section will also serve as the background for the development of the research hypotheses. The literature renew will touch all elements in the research design that are related to the topic of discussion and have potentially for influencing the research processes either positively or negatively.

Following the literature review, the third section will be a design of the research methodology, which will look into drafting the whole research process as to how the primary research will be conducted. This section will also define the responders for the research process and determine the variables that will be loaded into the system as well as the approach that will be adopted in measuring the loaded variables.

The fourth section will be the data analysis. Following the approaches designed in the third section, data will be gathered and the gathered data will be analysed in this section. The data will be analysed based on the background of understanding as to how the gathered data proves or disproves the research hypotheses.

The fifth section is the discussion and conclusion section, which provides a discussion of the findings from the paper in relation to both the secondary and primary research. This section will also look into highlighting the main discoveries from the paper as well as presenting an overall conclusion and review of the whole research paper.

The main scope in this paper is based on the understanding that the paper will be able to present a clear and concise knowledge on the research topic, and also serve as the background for the development of further researches in the topic of discussion.

1.7.            Conceptual framework

Figure 1.1 conceptual framework

The framework for the research is as illustrated above, and the description is that in the process of achieving the research objectives in relation to providing an understanding of the whole research topic, the paper will be coined around understanding changes in food intake pattern and practices, the  adopting this changes to discuss the research topic.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1.      Chapter introduction

The purpose of this chapter is t conduct a review of relevant literatures in the topic of discussion. This review will serve as the background from which the research hypotheses will be developed, as well as the background from which variables will be loaded into the questionnaire design. The review will cover all aspects of food intake in relation to the factors that influences food intake and how these factors can either be enhanced of mitigated, as well as the changes that have been noticed in food intake patterns and practices.

2.2. Cultural view of food

In the Western countries, there is a food culture which revolves around professionals being trained to see food as a source of nutrient, which is capable of providing the energy used for regulation of body processes and providing the necessary compounds used for growth and maintenance of the body system (Joanne, 2010).  The assumption that guides this practice is based on the idea that people will normally make the choice for food that can contribute to their long-term physical well-being my reducing the risk of chronic diseases. Little doubts also exist to the fact that diets are very important for sustainability of humanity as they are very compatible with human biological needs in essence to survival of the human species. However, there have been numerous identifications form both anthropologists and sociologists about the influence of non-biological factors on the choice of food and food behaviour. An application of the Maslow’s hierarchy of needs on food consumption and food intake habit will reveal that eating for survival is built around eating to satisfy the need of people, eating to showcase a sense of belonging, easting for self-esteem, and eating the family for self-actualization (Lowenberg 1970, p. 32).

In the context of the Asian culture and with special reference to the Indian communities in Malaysia, food intake can easily be viewed as being correlated with the cultural view of communism. As defined by Hofstede (2001) in his cultural analysis, communism is a cultural view in which the person that practices such view believes in togetherness and unification rather than individualism. In this view, the concept is that people should always do things as one, and everybody in the family has the need as well as responsibility to ensure that the family image. This concept can then be used to present the idea that food intake is more of a communistic approach. If that is the case, then the pattern and practices will be shaped around what is obtainable in the community.

Food is used to build and maintain social relationship in all cultures (Joanne, 2010). This was supported by Paul Rozin in his idea that is based on the basic task of growing, harvesting, processing, and preparing food - which is usually done by a group of people. In traditional cultures (such as that of the Indians), members of a given family or even groups of families in the village undertake the task of ensuring that food needs are meet together. Food consumption is also a thing that is based on social connotations, with the family and other people from the village gathering together for the purpose of food consumption and merriments in occasions. Basically, the idea as proposed by Joanne (2010) is that none of the cultures in the world promotes solitary eating. The reason for such is based on the assumption that food is extremely valued in the society and it is seen as the instrument for unification of humanity because it promotes social interactions (Rozin 1996, p. 244). In turn, positive social support promotes physical well-being and decreases mortality (McIntosh et al. 1993; Avlund et al. 1998).

Being offered food by somebody or a group of people is usually seen as a gesture of friendship. The acceptance of food on the same hand is seen as a designed to establish or strengthen bond. The reverse of failing to accept food on the other hand can be seen as naindication of unwillingness to establish or maintain relationship. This is based on the conception that there is no need to share food with our enemies of accept food from them as they can use it to poison us and eliminate us from the surface of the earth. However, the fact still remains that foods are rarely seen as an appropriate milieu for discord (Foster & Anderson 1978, p. 268). The level of neutrality and unification that food portrays makes it the most common way to express an individual’s desire to establish or strength a relationship, as well as show that the person offering the food cares about the person that the food is being offered to.

It has also been illustrated in existing literatures that the most power factor which influences food intake is social factors. The literatures are of the view that when people dine with others a social facilitation of eating is created and people tend to east more when they are in the mist of other people (Clendenen et al. 1994, p. 10). The implication of this study becomes that food intake is actually lower when people are in confinement as compared with when they are together with other people. However, it can still be argued that this case might not be applicable in all situations, if we consider the fact that food intake can also be influences by the availability of food. For instance, when we are in the mist of people, there might be little food available and the outcome will be that the intake will be relatively small. On the same hand, when somebody is in confinement and the available food is big, it can also be expected that the consumption rate will be higher the previous description. Thus, it is important to understand the influence of food availability as a determinant of food intake pattern and choice.

Major changes in food and nutrition issues in Malaysia

A review by the National Nutrition Policy and National Action Plan for Nutrition in Malaysia (2012) presented a clear definition of the changes in the food intake practices and nutrition issues in the country. These changes are built around the following factors:

Dramatic economic growth in the past 40 years – as noted by the ministry, the economic status of Malaysia has dramatically increased in the past 4 decades, and such an increase has meant that the per capita GDP has also increased, which has resulted in a subsequent increase on the income and earnings of the general Malaysians. The outcome of such increase is a resulting increases in the volume of Malaysians that east outside. This is because, since foods are highly available outside and people I the society can afford these foods, they have now dedicated more time towards their job. This is resulting in a new food intake pattern which is centred on eating out and is becoming a common practice in the Malaysian society.

Industrialization, urbanization and improved health care facilities – another factor that has contributed significantly to the change in food intake patter and practices is the high level of urbanization and industrialization witnessed in the country. As a result of the above statement, processed foods are readily available in the country and these processed foods are also affordable. All these factors have also influenced the change in consumption pattern is more centred towards consumption of junk foods.

The most significant change in this sense can be noticed in the fact that the nutrient level have increased positively, and people are now conscious of the need to maintain healthy eating . The factor behind this is based on the general conception (which has also been described in the background analysis of this research paper) that healthy eating today will influence the health of people tomorrow positively, while unhealthy eating will then have a subsequent negative influence on their lives tomorrow.

Figure 2.1: Increase in nutrition (1967 – 2007) in Malaysia 

Source as adapted from: National Nutrition Policy and National Action Plan for Nutrition in Malaysia (2012)

The implication from the above illustration is that there has been an increase in the nutritional level of food intake in the country. As support to the above claims in the Malaysian contents is that the level of calories, protein and fat available in foods has increased and this increase is in line with the need to maintain healthy eating. In the context of the research topic, it can also be argued that there is a subsequent increase of the above nutrition on the food intake amongst Indian women in Malaysia.

The explanation for this shift towards a more affluent diet was presented by the ministry to be based on the following aspects:

1.                  Reduction on the intake of starchy staples

2.                  No increase on the intake of fruits and vegetables

3.                  Increase in the intake of fats and oils, refined carbohydrates, meat/fish/eggs

4.                  Increase in the intake of fat as a source of energy

5.                  Increase in the availability of animal sources of protein, fat and calories

Figure 2.2 changes in the sources of calories

Source as adapted from: National Nutrition Policy and National Action Plan for Nutrition in Malaysia (2012)

The noticeable change in this new trend is based on increase in the consumption of energy giving foods such as fats as source of energy and refined carbohydrates. This trend can be attributed to the shift in industrialization, which requires people to input more efforts towards their jobs in order to increase the performance of the company. As a result of that, it can be expected that there will be a subsequent increase in the consumption of energy foods in order to enhance their productivity through increase in their sources of energy.

National Nutrition Policy and National Action Plan for Nutrition in Malaysia (2012) also pointed out other social changes in relation to new trends of food intake in the country and such changes include:

Increase in eating outside – as stated earlier, there have been an increase in the number of Malaysian that east outside as a result of high affordability of these foods and increase in the income level of people residing and working in Malaysia. This argument is supported by the finding from the institutions and this further proves the fact that there economic changes and industrialization has been shifting the trends in food intake amongst Malaysians.

Increase in the consumption of fried food and fast food – this is another social change pointed out by the ministry, and it is centred around the fact that there have been a subsequent increase on the consumption of fast food and most of the foods in fast food chains are usually fried because it is a very easy and convenient way to cook foods. However, consumption of fried food without a doubt has negative health implications.

Over eating, inappropriate use of supplements, and increase in serving size – these three elements are related to each other, and it can be attributed to the high increase in income. Over eating on its own is a result of high income as you cannot afford to over eat when you know you cannot afford to pay the consumed foods. This is also the same as consuming oversized foods. The only difference can be noticed in the case of use of supplement, which is used to define a situation in which the consumer doesn’t eat natural foods but adopts medical or herbal supplements. While the supplement might be beneficial on the earlier stage, it has been noted that it has the potential of influencing health negatively.

The end point from these changes as noted by the ministry is an increase in the number of diet-related chronic diseases which are in the form of: obesity, coronary heart diseases, diabetes, hypertension, and some kinds of cancers.

Global and regional food consumption patterns and practices

A recent study by the World Health Organization (2001) presented a detailed analysis of the current food intake pattern and practices in both a regional and global view. As noted by the organization, the promotion of good health and healthy diets as a measure of reducing the global burned of non-communicable diseases is some that need a combined approach from different sections that operate in the society with the objective of increasing the health balance of people in these societies (WHO, 2001). While the focus is in relation to how diet influences non-communicable diseases, the organization actually presented the changes in food intake pattern and practices amongst the six classes of food as discussed below.

Changes in the intake of dietary energy

Food intake which is expressed in the form of kilocalories (kcal) per capita per day is an important measurement variable used to evaluate and measure the evolution of global and regional food situations. The best term for such variable will be in the form of national average apparent food consumption”, and the terms is coined based on the fact that the data used in such analysis do come from the national Food Balance Sheet and not from just ordinary food surveys (WHO, 2001). An analysis of the data from FAOSTAT illustrates a steady increase in the volume of dietary energy that is measured in the form of kcals per capital per day on a worldwide basis; and this increase has been on the volume of 450 kcals per capita per day between the 1960s to the 1990s (WHO, 2001). However, it has been noticed that this change has not been equal across regions in the world, as there is almost a none-movement in the change dynamics when the sub-Saharan parts of Africa is out into consideration. However, a contrasting case has been demonstrated in the case of East Asia which saw a dramatic increase in the per capital supply of energy.

Table 2.1: Global and regional per capita food consumption (kcal per capita per day)

Source as adapted from: WHO (2001)

From the above analysis, it can be seen that the South East Asian region which falls under the South Asia category has experienced tremendous increase in the per capita per daily consumption rate. Malaysia is within this region and the implication is that there is a need food trend in Malaysia, in which people are now consuming more of dietary energy product than they used to consumer in the past.

In fact, the analysis above seems to show that the world has made a significant process in increase food intake per person on a general note. The increase in the average consumption of food across the wold has been higher expect for the declined noticed in the 1990s, which was the period the world faced economic transition (WHO, 2001). However, there seems to be a consensus that those declines in food intake will likely reoccur in the future (WHO, 2001). This growth in food intake has also been followed up by a form of structural shift in the diet that sees people move away from consuming staple food such as roots and towards a new pattern that is based largely on consumption of livestock products and vegetable oil (WHO, 2001).

Table 2.2: Vegetable and animal sources of energy in the diet (kcal per capita per day)

Source as adapted from: WHO (2001)

The table 2.2 above presents an indication that while there might be an increase in demand as illustrated in the table 1, there seems to be a decrease in the supply of both animal and vegetable products in underdeveloped countries, while such supply has actually increased in both developing and developed countries. The same case is also applicable for protein where it was noted that while there have been a subsequent increase in the demand of protein products, there resulting decline in supply has actually increased on the same note.

The implication from the above analysis is that there seems to be a gap between the demand and supply curve, in which the amount of food produced, is not up to the amount of foods demanded. This is most common in the underdeveloped countries, and the reason for such differences can be attributed to the fact that these underdeveloped countries might not have the technological dispositions available in both the developing and developed nations where such technologies are being used to increase the efficiency of production and a such meet the increasing demands in food intake amongst these countries.

Another indication made by WHO (2001) is in the case of changes in trends of food intake, in which it was noted that there is a new shift in the choice of food being consumed and consumers are increasingly being influenced by the available information on the foods that they want to consume. Such information includes the nutritional value and the influence of the food on their health. In cases where such food is expected to yield high positive influence, the projection is that consumption will be increased significantly as the consumers will be willing to consume that particular food in order to get the associated benefits from such consumptions. Something that is striking in this new trend is that it is readily adopted across the globe and influenced heavily by the availability of information in the system. As a result of advancement and adoption of information and communication technologies, people across the world can now access information about the food they consume in order to understand the nutritional value and also review their consumption patter as to how it will influence their personal development in the future positively. The indication in this case is that the new trend is more of a shift towards healthy eating (WHO, 2001).

Food Consumption Patterns in Malaysia

It has been identified that the trend in Malaysian food consumption is similar with what is obtainable in the developing countries (Tey et al., 2008), and the changes can be grouped in to the following paths: an initial increase in the consumption of staple foods such as rice; proceeded by an subsequent increase in the consumption of foreign staple foods such as wheat; diversified consumption patterns that includes changes in both the place of consumption and time of consumption; and then an increase in the consumption of foods that are made up high quality nutrients such as protein (Tey et al., 2008),

The changes in the Malaysian food consumption trend is as illustrated in the table 3 below, and the illustration presents an data based on the consumption pattern of aggregate food groups in Malaysia. On a more general note, what can be seen from the table is that there is a diversification in food consumption patterns amongst Malaysian consumers. On the same hand, the consumers have been given wider options as a result of subsequent increase in the number of manufactures in the country (Tey, 2008). Such an indication is similar with the finding from WHO above, and the indication is that the increase in number of manufacturers is a result of increase in industrialization and adoption of agricultural technology which has also increased the volume of agricultural produce in the country. The preference amongst the choice that these consumers have been given is also illustrated by the rise in demand of cereal, meat fish and seafood from 1985-2003. Such an increase is also in line with the subsequent increase noted by World Health Organization, where it was stated that there is an increase in the demand for energy giving foods, and also demand for protein foods amongst people in South Asia, which Malaysia is one of the countries in this region. The most noticeable discovery is that the increase in demand and consumption of cereal has risen by more than 100%, which is also in line with the discoveries discussed earlier from the World Health Organization’s reports, where it was noted that there has been more than 100% increase in the demand for fibre foods (which cereal is one of such foods).

Table 2.3: Per Capita Consumption of Foods in Malaysia, 1985-2003

Source as adapted from: Tey et al. (2008)

Contrasting with the discoveries above, there has also been a subsequent decrease in the consumption of staple food such as rise, which is an indication that there has been an increase in the consumers’ welfare (Rao, 2000). Radhakrishna (2005) has also presented an argument for the sharp decline, in which he stated that the sharp decline in the consumption of staple food can be linked to the changes in consumers’ taste – from food items to non-food items, staple to non-staple, coarse to fine foods.

The discoveries from this analysis are in line with what has been discussed earlier, in which the World Health Organization noted that there has been an increased in the volume of consumption of fibre foods that services as source of energy, while a subsequent decline has been noted in the consumption of staples such as rice and no recorded change was noticed in the consumption of vegetables. As such, it is still in line with the changes in the environment that is related to employees seeking more sources of energy in order to keep up with the demanding tasks in their workplace, while people are also becoming conscious about the consumption of staples like rice as it increases their fat level and makes them obese. As such, all these still links back to the need to maintain higher level of health standards.

Comparison of the Malaysian Dietary with Developed Countries

The figure 2.3 below shows a comparative analysis of the common features between the Malaysian dietary and that of the developed countries as analysed from 2001 to 2002. If the consumption of cereal is taken to be a reflection of the economic status of a country, then Malaysia’ economic condition would be viewed as being below that of the developed countries. This is because Malaysian consumed at least 20% of more of cereals than that of the developed countries. The indication is that cereal is still considered as the major sources of dietary calories in Malaysia.

Figure 2.3 Comparison of Dietary between Malaysia and Developed Countries, 2001-2003 (%)

Source as adapted from: Tey et al. (2008)

As for now, only a small gap exists in the consumption of animal products, sugar and sweet between Malaysians and developed countries. Such a close gap is a reflection of the westernization of Malaysian Food consumption patter. As such, the meat consumption is projected to increase in the future (Tey et al., 2008). However, the Malaysian consumption of healthy foods with particular reference to fruits and vegetables is lower than what was obtained in the westernized nations.

From the above analysis, there is a statement which tries to link the changes in food intake pattern and practices in the Malaysian society to what is obtainable from the developed world. Such a link is a support to earlier argument in this paper that there has been a subsequent influence of multi-media and social networks on changes in consumption patter and practices. This is because, the advanced in information technology now makes consumption patterns easily influenced by what is obtainable from other countries in relation to maintaining good health and healthy life standards.

Previous studies on food intake in Malaysia

There are a number of noted suited on food intake pattern and practice in Malaysia, as well as on the consumer’s behaviour. Studied conducted in the 1970s (Tee and Thiam, 1975) and 1980s (Hussein et al., 1986) adopted a single equation formula in estimating the elasticity and project of future demand for food. Both of these studied presented an indication that there would be a projected increase in demand for staple foods (rice) as a means of fulfilling the basic food requirement.

In the 1990s, Baharumshah and Mohamed (1993) conducted an examination of the demand for meat by adopting the LV/AIDS formula, which while Mustapha (1994) examined the incorporating habit in the demand for fish and meat products in Malaysia by adopting a two-stage budgeting system. In any case, both of these studied made use of the same data as gathered from the Household Expenditure of 1990. It was found in these studies that following an increase in the per capita income, the tendency of Malaysian consuming more meat and fish (animal protein) increased. However, it was noticed that more consumption of poultry based products was noticed that meat products.

Mustapha et al. (1999, 2000 and 2001) adopted a cross-sectional data of Household Expenditure Survey of 1990 to conduct an examination of the income and price elasticity of demand for foods in Malaysia, and they adopted the LA/AIDS model in that study. The income elasticity indicated that there should be a high increase in the demand for meat and wheat based products. The suggestion made by the study is that there should be a clear upward more towards the consumption of high value and superior foods as a result of increase in the per capita income of Malaysians and the increase in the affluence level of the Malaysian society.

Ishida et al. (2003) conducted a somewhat different study as compared with those above, and the study focused on understanding the changes in food consumption expenditure in Malaysia. The study made use of the Engel’s expenditure elasticity t measure the items by adopting a cross-sectional aggregate data from the same Household Expenditure Survey of 1973, 1980, and 1993/94. The indication from the estimated result of the elasticity of meat, fruits, vegetables, mild and dairy product showed a relatively high increase. On a general note, the study made a suggestion that the food expenditure structure in Malaysia has incurred a level of diversification, which include an increase in the level of meat, fruits, vegetables, and milk and dairy product – which is more than the dominant staple food (rice). Additionally, it has been shown that the change in consumption patter amongst the Malaysian society can highly be linked to a subsequent increase in the population growth and increase in the per capita income, also joined with a drastic change in structure of the lifestyles of the population which is also supported by rapid urbanization.

By using the data from Household Expenditure 1990, Radam et al. (2005) extended the study on food demand in Malaysia and the elasticity for the major food groups were estimated via LA/AIDS. The focus of the study was on demand for fruits in Malaysia, and it was conducted through an investigation on the expenditure of elasticity and factors that influences demand of fruit in Malaysia on the individual level by adopting the Working-Leser Model. The indication made by the study is that there would be an increase in the demand amongst Malaysians for fruits, and the increase would not be only high in terms of value of food items, but also functional in terms of certain foods items like fruits.

From this study, it can be seen that there are numerous studies conducted to understand the subsequent changes in the consumption of food amongst Malaysians, and these studies have looked into different forms of studies. On a more general note, the findings from these studies seem to be in line with that made by the World Health Organization as has been discussed.

Food safety practices

Considering the fact that the lack of good hygienic eating has been attributed to a number of food-borne diseases, it can easily be deduced that there will be an increase in the food practices amongst consumers, and the increase will be such that is designed towards a subsequent change from eating any kind of food to eating foods that are prepared under high hygienic conditions. This is also in line with what was obtained from the survey of the World Health Organization above, which shows a subsequent change in the food consumption pattern that is shifted towards a healthier eating and changes that are linked to increase in the consumption of energy giving foods and foods that service sources of protein.

Epidemiological data sourced from across the globe:  Europe, North-America, Australia, and New Zealand points out an indication as to linking homemade foods to a substantial amount of the food-borne diseases (Bryan, 1978:816; Borneff et aI., 1988:1; Williamson et aI., 1992:94; Simpson, 1993:4; Meredith et aI., 2001:23; Crawford &Murano, 2002:6; Redmond & Griffith, 2003a:130). There are also similar findings from the UK, which are in support of the fact that homes are the main sources of food-borne diseases, and this is also similar with what was obtained from the Ireland by Worsfold and Griffith (1997a:97), Miles et al. (1999:744) and Gorman et al. (2002:148).

Bryan (1988:816) presented identification and classification of the factors that result in the outbreaks of food-borne disease in the United States based on analysis conducted with data gathered from 1961 to 1982. The finding indicated that contaminated raw products, inadequate heating and improper cooling mostly caused Samonellosis.Staphylococcal food-borne disease was attributed to mainly a result of handling from infected food prepares, a lapse of 12 hours or more between the time the food was prepared and the time it was eaten and improper cooling, while botulism was caused byinadequate heat processing, improper fermentations, and an incorrect holding temperature, incorrect cooling, a lapse of 12 or more hours between preparation and eating, inadequate reheating, and incorrect hot holding led to Clostridium

The domestic kitchen is a potential source of food-borne illness as contaminated raw foods, poor personal hygiene and improper preparation, cooking and cooling of food can act as breeding grounds for pathogenic micro-organisms (Bryan 1988:663; Gorman et aI., 2002:144). Other indication presented as the sources of food-borne diseases in home is the common practice of preparing the ingredients for making the food may hours before the actual preparation of the food and storing food in room temperature for a long period of time before the actual consumption (Bryan, 1988:663; Worsfold& Griffith, 1997b:401).

Basically, the case of preparing the time used for cooking the food many hours before the actual preparation of the food and storing the food in room temperature is evidently true and clear in relation to the fact that it can actually lead to increase in food-borne diseases. This is because, when the ingredients used for preparing food are actually kept for a long time prior to the actual preparation of the food, such a condition will give room for numerous kinds of micro-organism to grow in the food – which will evidently led to food-borne diseases especially in cases where the food are actually consumed in their raw state.

The indication is that when women are under confinement, their actual food preparation practice can directly influence the possibility of them contacting food-borne diseases. As such, this variable will also be loaded into the questionnaire for this study. This is because, if the women understand that their food preparation practices might actually influence the possibility of them contacting food-borne diseases, and that that food borne-diseases are higher in homemade foods than those bought outside.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCES CHANGES IN THE CONSUMPTION PATTERN OF WOMEN IN CONFINEMENT: A CASE OF INDIAN WOMEN IN KUALA KUBU BHARU

Indian cuisine from a global view

Ashis (2004) made known that one of the basic wisdom of many of the Indian traditionalist is that food is the centre of health and nutrition and it can also be noticed in the social and religious rituals in India. The changing global view of ethnic dining has expanded as a result of increase in globalization with new restaurants offering foreign food across Malaysia and the view is centred on promoting food as heath and food as social ritual (Ashis, 2004).

In any case, Indian cuisine is not new the Malaysian culture because Indians make part of the country’s diverse ethnic group. However, the fact still remains that the cultural and social view of food consumption amongst Indian communities in Malaysia is the same as what is obtainable in India as a country. This is based on the fact that irrespective of the relocation of Indians in Malaysia in the olden days, which now means that they are part of the country – the food consumption pattern which they acquired from their forefathers as part of their cultural values is what still guide their present consumption in Malaysia.

On the global sense, the promotion of Indian foods is still taking the front line as a result of increasing presence of Indians across the globe and increasing presence of Indian products in the global market. As such, it is not hard to move around shops in the world (even in cities where Indians don’t reside) and find numerous indications of Indian consumption patterns, practices, and cuisines. Ashis (2004) noted that the most notices of such influence of Indian culture in global consumption are as a result of increase in the perseverance of Indian spices. Whichever is the case, the fact still remains that Indian foods have taken centre stage in the global consumption patterns and practices and their culture is shaping what is acceptable in the modern world.

As such, it can be stated that the change in global view of Indian is influencing the consumption of Indian food during confinement. This is based on the notions laid down by Aishis (2004) that Indian are now becoming more aware of their food culture as a result of increase in globalization and adopting their food cultures across the globe. The influence that the media has to play should not be ignored as there are numerous television channels such as Asian Food Channel (AFC) which provides views with a direct guide on how to prepare new Indian dishes. On that note, it can thus be hypothesized that:

HP1. Increasing level of globalization and advancement in technology is making Indian cuisines popular and it increases the consumption level of women in confinement as they can learn how to cook new foods from the Media.

Changes in Authenticity of Indian foods

Foods can be very authentic in a number of ways. Additionally, it can also be inauthentic in a number of ways. In any case, there are usually two meanings used to describe a case of food in the high context of international cultures as being inauthentic – compromise made with the tastes of the food which is not from the ethnic cuisine where it is being consumed or other issues which are extraneous to the local taste, and compromise made in relation to the recipe as a way of coping with the unavailability of paucity of recipes.

As far as food is concerned, it has been noted by Ashis (2004) that Indian is one of the diverse in terms of food consumption, pattern, practice and cuisine. This is basically because of the country’s high volume of population and diverse ethnicity. In any case, the culture of Indian foods resolves around vegetarianism, but this culture is far becoming inauthentic especially in diverse societies like Malaysia where Indians can access different forms of cuisines from different ethnic groups.

On the part of women in confinement, the food practices will be changing in line with the changes in the cultural view as identified above. This is because, Ashis (2004) states that inauthenticity of food is increased as a result of lack of availability of ingredients and other factors that are used to enhance the food preparation patterns. As such, it is expected that women in confinement will be more likely to have inauthentic food consumption pattern because they will not have access to ingredients like women outside confinement will have. This is because, confinement is a period in the Indian culture when women are actually restricted from going to certain places or put to stay in specific places. On that note, it can then be hypothesized that:

HP.2 There is a potential of shift in the consumption pattern of Kuala KubuBharuIndian women in confinement towards an increase in the intake of authentic Indian foods.

Emergence of Fast Food (Mamak Restaurants)

Another trend that is influencing the consumption pattern of women in confinement is the emergency of fast food, which has increased the availability and accessibility of foods across the country and the world to be precise. One of such example can be seen in the form of the rediscovery of some cuisines that are more compatible with the basic idea of fast food. As urbanization and industrialization is increasing in both Malaysia as a whole and Indian community in references, there is shift in both the political and economic setting of the country towards ideas and norms that are in in line with the globalized capitalism, and it is fast expanding the availability of fast food markets (Aishis, 2004).

Eating outside homes is part of Malaysian culture. The country is famously known as a food heaven for both locals and tourists. Selangor is one of the Malaysian cities where people can have access to all kinds of foods from all over Malaysian and one of the most popular foods amongst Malaysians is Mamak food (Katina and Abdul, 2012).

The term “Mamak” is used in Malaysia to describe Tamil Muslims who usually own and operate such restaurants. In the early days of Mamak eating, the foods are usually sold at the road sides, but most of the owners have changed the format to a bistro or café form as a result of high demand from customers. For this study, the roadside stall, bistro and café will be summed up as Mamak restaurants. These kinds of restaurants are usually popular because of the variety of foods and beverages they offer. Currently, the ownership and operation of Mamak restaurants have changed from traditional Tamil Muslims to virtually all religions and ethnicity in Malaysia, but the Muslims still dominate the ownership and operation percentage in this industry. The operation hour of this kind of restaurant is usually 24/7, which offers people from all races, religion and ages the opportunity to dine for their favourite dishes, meet up with friends of family, or just hang around to watch football games and other TV programs. The most famous Mamak food is “Roti Canai”, and the most popular beverage is “TehTarik”. 

As mentioned earlier, eating outside is part of Malaysian cultures – with their reasons being inability to cook at home as a result of either tight day-to-day schedules of personal choice. Thus, this creates an advantage for Mamak restaurants as their products and services are always in demand. Their 24/7 operation hour and easy accessibility across the corners of homes in Selangor provides customers with the needed conveniences. Compared to high-end and branded restaurants, Mamak restaurants offer a relatively lower price with higher variety of foods and beverages. However, the quality might be lower and the services might be poorer than these branded restaurants. This case will be further investigated in this paper.

However, what must be noted at this stage is that Mamak restaurant is a part of Malaysian life and eating trend as it offers convenience, lower price and higher variety. There might be differences in terms of how a particular Mamak restaurant undertakes its business process as compared with other competing brands in the same industry.

Since women in confinement are usually restricted to one place, it becomes clear that they might not have access to restaurants outside. However, there is an increasing number of restaurants being opened in close proximity with homes and some of them are actually in the same premises with the homes (such as those located in condominiums). Additionally, most of restaurants in Malaysia offer home delivery (especially branded restaurants such as McDonalds, KFC, Pizza Hurt etc.) and this also increased the chances of women in confinement consuming fast food. The main factor for consumption of fast food will be based on their desire for change of taste of lack of strength to prepare their own food. As such, it can be hypothesized that:

HP3: The emergence of Fast Food is changing the consumption practices of Indian women in Kuala KubuBharu from consuming foods that are solely cooked at home, to sometimes consuming foods that are ordered outside from restaurants.

Supply chain trust

Previous research has identified several factors which potentially can affect trust. In the following, only studies are reviewed which deal with trust in inter-enterprise relationships, thus ignoring the issue of building trust with final consumers. Moreover, the analysis is confined to established business relationships, that is, situations where past collaboration or previous personal encounters existed. First-time exchanges in which business partners trust each other due to third-party references or market reputations are not covered. Overall, trust can be affected by communication and ‘actions’ (Lewicki and Wiethoff, 2000).

Effective communication provides relevant information to tractors helping them to assess what trustees do, thus increasing transparency and affecting trust levels. Good, effective communication or successful ‘information sharing’ has been shown to be positively related to trust levels in business relationships in earlier studies (Kumar, 2000; Morgan and Hunt, 1994; Dyer and Chu, 2003). Characterising effective communication, Low and Mohr (2001) use the indicators of relevance, accuracy, reliability and timeliness as components of ‘information quality’. In addition, the consistency of transmitted information may also be important, meaning that when several communication channels are used simultaneously, the transmitted information should be identical. Also, information should be delivered in appropriate frequency.

Previous research shows that managers tend to believe that more information is better (O’Reilly, 1980), but clearly, an overload needs to be avoided. Hence, ‘effective’ communication is information sharing that fulfils its purpose while communication in general may not always achieve this goal but sometimes just represent the radiation of hard-to-decipher ‘noise’.

On the context of women in confinement, supply chain trust is very significant in the sense that it serves as a bridge between the choice of food to consume and the actual food consumed. Since most of the women in condiment will have their foods and ingredients supplied in there are of confinement, it can stressed that the level of trust established between the people who supply the food influences their choice of food and patterns of intake. The implication is that when the trust is very high, these women will be likely to consumer the foods that are recommended by the suppliers (be it internal or external suppliers). On that note, it can then be stated that:

HP4:  The level of trust established between Indian women in Kuala KubuBharu can influences their food intake pattern and practices while in confinement, with the influence being higher when the level of trust is higher and vice versa.

Consumption of value adding foods

The World Health Organization (2010) made a discovery of the changes in the Malaysian food consumption pattern, and the discovery is based on a shift towards the increased consumption of dietary products which is as a result of increase in demand of energy to meet the challenges of daily needs in terms of organizational tasks. It can easily be argued that this change is not expected to be noticed in women while in confinement as they don’t need energy boost, but such argument would be incomplete if we consider the fact that there are numerous reasons why women are confined to a specific place. Such include that they might be house wives and expected to take care of the family, or that they might have just delivered a baby and they are expected to take care of their new born. If such is the case, it can be seen that they also require energy at some point to cope with the new challenges, and this will directly influence their consumption pattern. On that note, it can be hypothesized that:

HP5: There is a change in the consumption of Food amongst Indian women in Kuala KubuBharu, which is experiencing a shift towards the consumption of high energy foods in order to have the strength of meeting their demanding task while in confinement.

Family control

Control has been studied in a number of literatures, most of which try to provide scientific research and review on both management and organizational, and family aspects (Tuomela 2005; Das and Teng, 2001, 1998; Langfield-Smith, 1997; Otley, 1994; Ouchi, 1980, 1979, 1977). Ouchi (1977) defined control as an evaluative process which is based on evaluating or monitoring the performance of an individual or output from a process. From the view point of family, control signifies a period in which a member of the family is fully directed on what to do and what not to do. It can also be viewed as a reflection of the acceptable norms in the family and as such and be applicable to food intake. This is because, in the Indian culture, there is a high sense of power distance in which the men as bride winners of the family are viewed more like little god and the woman is expected at all times to obey his command and listen to his directions.

On the account of the above statement, it can then be stated that when a woman is confined in a specific place as a result of either custom or punishment, the food intake can also be directly influenced by the level of control exercised by an external party on what the woman should take and what the woman should not take. This is most common in cases where the confinement is as a result of health issue and the woman is expected to abide by the discretions that guide his consumption as of the point that she is being confined. As such, this might result in change of their food intake pattern and practices in the sense that the pattern and practice adopted will be such that is based on the level of control exercised over the woman. On that note, it can be hypothesized that:

HP 6: The pattern of food intake amongst Indian women in Kuala KubuBharu is highly influenced by the level of control exercised over them, and pattern will shift towards consuming whatever they are directed to consume.

Food price and expenditure

The price of food in the market can also influence customers’ choice of such items because, price generally have the capability of attracting or repelling customers (Monroe, 1989), especially as price can also take the function of quality indicator (Lewis and Shoemaker, 1997).

The prices of foods available in the market generally differ in relation to the location of the restaurants, quality of foods offered and design. If the price is high, customer will generally expect higher quality of products and services, or it will increase the possibility of feeling cheated on. On the sane hand, if the price is low, customers will generally question the possibility of the food being able to offer high quality goods. Additionally, as a result of the competitiveness of the food industry, customers are likely to have their choice of a particular food to consume being influenced by price. Such approach is referred to as an “internal reference price”, which is the price in a buyers’ mind when that they use in judging or comparing actual prices (Grewal et al., 1998). The indication from this analysis is that the price offered by the market should be in line with the price customers expect to pay in order to reduce the negative ramifications possible in cases where the actual price is higher than reference price.

On the case of confinement, it must be noted that most of the women in confinement or people in general do not work. This is because; confinement reduces their level of mobility which also reduces their chances of getting a job and making some earnings. The fact is that women in confinement are highly dependent and as such have little capital for self-expenses. On that note, it can easily be stated that the price of food will result to changes in their food intake pattern and practices. As such it can further be hypothesized that:

HP7. Kuala KubuBharu Indian women will change their food intake practice from the classier and nutritious diets to a cheaper diet while in confinement because they don’t have enough money to support their expenses for consumption of classy diets.

Summary of the findings

Food is more than just about the eating process. It has been transformed as a symbolic element that is used to describe the level of satisfaction that an individual can gain from being alive and doing things with other people I the world. This assumption is based on the act that food is being promoted across the globe as the sources of both good health and good wealth. On the health aspect of it, to eat good food is to be healthy as good foods will provide the consumer with the necessary vibes that is needed to maintain high level of life standards and induce a sense of happiness in the person’s life as compared with other people who don’t have such life standards. On the wealth aspect of it, the promotion of food is based on the notion that it is a reliable source of income because; food is part of being alive and human beings must at all times consume foods in order to be alive. This increases the potential of food to serve as a reliable source of income because the high volume of consumption will increase demand, which will subsequently increase the profitability of people selling the food.

In the context of this study, the focus is on understanding the changes in food intake patterns and practices amongst Indian women residing in Kuala KubuBharu during periods of confinement. The finding from the study reveals a change in the overall global and Malaysian food intake patterns and practices, and this directly influences changes in the context of the subject being studied. The summary of the whole chapter is that there is a noticeable change in the consumption pattern and practices of Kuala KubuBharu’s Indian women during the period of confinement. Such changes is influenced by a number of factors in the form of food availability, nutrition, price, level of control exercised over them, choice, appetites and a host of other factors as discussed in the above literature. More significantly, it was noticed that these changes are influenced highly as a result of their desire to shift from a poor diet to a healthy eating that will influence their life span positively.

CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1. Chapter introduction

In the context of understanding the changes of food intake pattern and practices amongst Indian women in Kuala KubuBharu and the factors that influence such changes when they are under confinement, a primary research will be conducted in line with the design of this paper in order to gain a background insight on the topic of study. As such, this chapter will detail an analysis of the methodology for the primary research, and it will include an insight into the variables that will be loaded in the research and how these variables will be translated in the finding section. Additionally, this paper will also detail an analysis of the philosophies, strategies and approaches that will be adopted to ensure a productive end point at the end of the primary research.

3.2. Research purpose

The main purpose of this research is to understand the changes in the confinement food intake practices and patterns amongst Indian women in Kuala KubuBharu. On the event of achieving such purpose, this research will breakdown the process in the three elements discussed below:

What is the past food intake pattern – this paper will seek to understand the past food intake pattern and practices amongst the subject in review. This is important because an understanding of the past practices will help to develop the ground for comparison with the present practices and future trends –which will then help to understand the actual changes in food intake practices and patterns amongst the subject in review.

What are the present practices and patterns, and what factors influenced the change from the past to present practices – with a background understanding on the past food intake practices amongst the subject in review, there is also a need to understand the present practices and patterns as it will help to develop the right ground for judging and analysing the changes that have occurred in food intake amongst the subject being reviewed. Additionally, it is also important to understand the factors that either influenced or mitigated these changes as such an understanding will be beneficial to managers and practitioners as well in relation to producing products that best meets the changes in demand structure of the food intake amongst Indian women in confinement.

What is the extent of present changes and what are the projected trends for future changes – the final section will be based on understanding how the level of changes in the food intake consumption presently as it is higher or lower than what was expected, and developing a background for understanding the projected future changes in relation to the new trends that will be experienced in the future and the factors that will mitigate or enhance such trends.

From the above analysis, it is now clear that while the topic is simply “understanding the changes in food intake patterns and practices amongst Indian women in Kuala KubuBharu,” the subject is well extended towards analysing the elements that surrounds such changes and understating how such elements can actually be mitigated or enhanced in the future in order to initiated a control paradigm for food intake patterns and practices amongst the subject being reviewed. Another area that the research will seek to explore is also the case of understanding the factors that influenced these changes and projected future trends in order to provide practitioners and managers a forehand information about how they can tailor their food production and services to meet the needs of the subjects in review as their patterns and practices changes over time.

3.3. Research philosophy

Research is an important aspect of any academic experience and career goal. This is because it enhances the knowledge base and understanding of the person who is undertaking the research process and it also helps to broaden the understanding of subjects that are generally complex in nature. Research is the root form which new theories are created an existing one critic to understanding their level of applicability with respect to changes and new trends in the modern environment.

Philosophically, this research is centred on studying about Indian women in Kuala KubuBharu and the experienced changes in their food intake patterns and practice. Such an approach is structured to nurture the understanding of these practices and patterns when these women are in confinement. Confinement stage is the period at which women are basically not allowed to move from one place to another. There are number of factors that contribute to women being in confinement and these factors have been discussed earlier in the previous chapters of this paper. No matter the factor that resulted to an Indian woman residing in the areas to be studied being confined in a specific place, it is important to understand that the main concern would be about how the changes in their food intake pattern differs as compared with women of the same class, ethnicity and from the same location that are not actually confined to a specific place.

On that note, the philosophy of this research will be based on understanding the changes in relation to the subject by applying a review of women that fall within different age groups (where difference in age will be measured on a 10 years age scale) and also residing in different parts of the region to be studied (where differences in region will be measured by ensuring that women representing different sections of the region are included in the study).

The underlying element for such philosophy is designed to ensure that the age groups are capable of offering insight into what they think that might have changed in their food intake practices and patterns and the factors that they feel caused such changes. A broader diversification of age to fall within the region and subject to be studied will ensure that the finding will be more qualitative as different people will be able to contribute in their vast understanding and perspectives.

3.4. Research approach

The approach for this research paper is qualitative approach. In accordance with Sage publications (2013), the qualitative approach to research is a unique background that is used to foster precise ways of asking questions and particular ways for thinking through problems. Common questions that are asked in qualitative researches are designed to provide answers as to how, why and what factors that influences the issue being review. Qualitative research is a very exciting landscape that is interdisciplinary in nature and comprises of wide perspective and practices used for generating knowledge. Researches from all across filed in the social and behavioural use adopts qualitative research – and it is important to understand that the context of this paper is also based on social and behavioural studies. Additionally, the research process involved in qualitative is usually given the centre stage and this means that the searcher have high potential of focusing on the subject matter in review and applying all necessary approaches to ensure that the research is usually gathered towards achieving set objectives through set parameters that can be used to measure the success of the research process. 

Basically the essence of qualitative research is built around the tyranny of numbers it has abandoned for the purpose of creating enigma in words. instead of creating a “Yes” or “No “ approach to research methodology, qualitative research allows the audience to offer opinion based on a clear definition of what they perceive to be the problem and how they wish to solve the problem in the long run. It is often seen as being rooted in the non-tangible domain, which is based on experimental and intuitive researches studies that are fundamental in natures.

In accordance with Hiat (1986), p, 737), qualitative works are in constant and dynamic flux, but in essence it is moving towards some of the end-point in modern evolutionary way, numerous efforts have been made by the different researchers in order to establish a concrete meaning on the qualitative dimensions and it also serve as an integrative function from which the researchers develop an absolute understanding in the context of the subject being studied.

The reason for choosing qualitative research is because of its numerous advantages over quantitative research in social research. One of the advantages that qualitative research has is the exploratory approaches it adopts with the use of open-ended questions and probing that allows participants to contribute in the research process with their own words instead of being forced to choose from a group of fixed response that might not always be in line with what they wanted. Such an approach means that the responders for this research will have the opportunity of:

It allows for expandable answers – qualitative research will allows responders to expand their answers in order to meet their full understanding, perception and perspective about the subject being reviewed. Such an opportunity will mean that they will be able to contribute significantly towards a revolutionary analysis of the whole research approach and it will also help the research to develop a more concise conclusion on the topic being studied. As such, it can be argued the research approach will contribute significantly towards the findings that will be made from this paper, as the responders will be able to present their own general understanding of the topic, instead of being forced to choose from fixed answers.

3.5. Research strategy

The strategy for this research will be an exploratory research method which is conducted in the form of an in-depth study with the responders. Exploratory research is a form of research which is designed to explore different aspects of the topic being studies. The word “exploratory” implies that it doesn’t focus on any general objective as to meeting some specified points, but instead it is diverse in its approach to review by offering the opportunity for researchers to understand different aspects of the study section and explore other areas that might have a direct influence on finding from the research.

In-depth study on the other hand is a form of interviewing in which the research chats with the responder one-on-one in order to understanding their views about the projected changes from the research hypotheses. Such a close discussion will be enhanced by adopting necessary strategies to ensure that the responders feel at ease and peace with the researcher in order to make them comfortable with the research process and also enhance their possibilities of contributing to the research process positively. Such approach will include a discussion of the importance of the study, which will then persuade them to contribute significantly towards the research process.

The main reason for adopting an in-depth form of exploratory research strategy in this qualitative research is because the topic being reviewed doesn’t have a common ground for judgement. Food intake amongst Indian women while it might be guided by the food culture of Indian as discussed previously will still vary form one person to another as there are different factors that influences an individual’s choice of food. For instance, while there might be well established cuisines in the Indian culture, there might be difference in appetite and availability and it will definitely influence the consumption pattern to a very significant point. As such, exploratory research is the right antidote for understanding these changes in its basic form and then analysing the finding based on designed hypotheses in order to

3.6. Time horizons

Time is another important aspect of any research process because it determines whether the gathered data will be significant in relation to representing the overall population as related to the research objectives and expected outcome. In cases where enough time is allocated for data gathering, the common outcome from such includes a sufficient data that is big enough for serving as a representation of the actual population. On that same note, it must be argued that allocating too much of time might delay the potential of determining the research outcome faster.

In the case of the qualitative research in this paper, time is not an issue because the whole study can be finalized within a short period of time. The main issue is on the amount of time that will be allocated for answering the questionnaire. On that note, the amount of time for answering the questions that will be readout in the in-depth study period will vary amongst responders. The implication is that responders will be given as much time as required to fully answering all the questions. This is because, this is a qualitative research and the more data that the research will be able to gather form the responders, the more the quality of the research will be influenced positively.

On the side of conclusive analysis of the data finding, the whole data gathering will not be allowed to supersede one month in order for the research to have enough time to analyse the individual findings from the research paper. The time frame will be dispersed according to the number of targeted responders and it will be distributed according to their level of time availability in order to ensure that the are relaxed and don’t cut off in the process of the interview.

3.7. Research methods

As described above, this will be an in-depth research process in which the research will engage in a one-on-one chat with the responders at the responders’ convenience. The idea of conducting the research at the responders’ convenience is based on the notion stated above that it will allow the responders the opportunity of being fully focused on the research and not dropping out while the research is still on-going.

The method for this research will be convenience based sample. The approach involves undertaking the research in areas that are normally crowded (such as shopping mall). Once the target has been identified, the research will approach the target and describe the purpose of the research as well as the research method. The idea is to convince the target to commit her time towards answer the question and provide the most reliable of answers in relation to questions asked. The target will also be advised on how to seek help in areas that she might be experiencing difficulties.  In any case, the research will be standing by the target and helping her in whatever way possible. However, the research will not attempt to influence the response in any way, instead the focus will be on explaining the questions to the target and guiding the target through the answering sections.

In cases where the target proves to be stubborn in relation to concurring with the research process, financial rewards will be given (not exceeding RM200) in order to convince the target to participate in the research. However, reward will only be given in cases where the target has been identified as having the potential to influence the research process positively. For instance, if the target is the only one that fall within her age group at the time the research was conducted. Considering the fact that the responders will be just nine in number, the question will be big and expandable in the research process in order to gather as much information as possible.

In line with the statement by MI.org (2013), such a situation will influence the participants’ truthfulness, as trust will be established with the interview and they will be more willing to respond in to all questions. Basically, the idea in the data gathering process is designed around ensuring that the responders provide correct answers to the question being presented to them in the interview section. Truthful answers are most significant in the case of qualitative research because the responders are few and the process of qualitative research involves direct interpretation of their contribution. As such, when the answers are actually truthful, the quality of the research is enhanced significantly.

Once the responder agrees to participate in the research process, the interview will find the right place for the responders to sit and participate in the research process. The research will then read out the questions to the responder, applying cognitive thinking principles in order to re-twist the questions and see if the responder will be able to provide the same answer to the questions. This is very important because it has been highlighted in earlier that truthfulness of response is very important in order to ensure that quality of the whole research is guaranteed. As such, re-twisting questions to understand the responders cognitive process ability will also help to measure the truthfulness of the response provided. In case where the responder is able to offer the same level of a similar level of response in relation to comparing between the original and twisted questions, then the higher chances of the responder saying the truth and the better the quality of the paper.

Basically, quality is an important aspect of any research because the main purpose of research is to lay the foundation for development of theories or support existing ones. Since the theories basically aid the management process, it is very important to ensure that the elements used to develop the theories are actually in line with the expected standards of which quality is one of the approaches used to measure standards in research.

3.8 Data collection

Many factors needed to be considered in the qualitative phase of the study. One of these important factors was to obtain genuine data and naturally occurring conversations during the interview. The researcher’s role here was to neutrally and objectively record the interactions using the qualitative investigation tools. All the observations were noted. The conversations were recorded. This is an advantage because it allowed the research to interpret findings from the research process based on individual responses gathered. Saville-Troike (1982) mentioned that if the observer is absent, the observer would not be able to observe [hear] what would have been taking place (p.113). The writing of notes was conducted unobtrusively the whole interview which took place in a period of 10 to 20 minutes between the responders. Throughout the interview process, the researcher wrote down the statements made by the interviewees.

Delamont (2002) in Fieldwork in Educational Setting explains that recording what was said throughout the observation should be done as discreetly as possible, if possible not word for word but some key words or phrases would be helpful to jog the memory later.

In conducting the quantitative research, many important elements and aspects were considered. A questionnaire (See Appendix) is merely a ‘tool’ to bring together and accumulate information about a specific aspect of interest. It contains a list of questions. This composed questionnaire contains two parts; Part 1 has four questions regarding general personal particulars whereas Part 2 is divided into 2 sections, Section A and Section B. There are three questions which require short answers in Section A. Section B contains 4 parts. Part a discusses the past food intake pattern and practices amongst responders, Part b asks about what is presently obtainable in food intake practices and patter, Part c is about the influence of culture on food intake practices and patter, and Part d is about the projected future trends in food intake practices and patterns. All the questions in Part B are answered using open ended questions that allows the responder to elaborate more in relation to answered provided in the research process. The responders were supposed to answer all the questions.

A questionnaire needs to have clear and understandable instructions, therefore; the instructions for this questionnaire were written clearly in order for better understanding of the participants. Questionnaires must always have an exact reason which is related to the objectives of the research. Thus, the objectives of this study were written on the front page and the title of Section A and Section B explained what were the objectives of the questions and a pilot study was first conducted to check people’s understanding and ability to answer the questions, highlight areas of confusion and look for any routing errors, as well as providing an estimate of the average time each questionnaire will take to complete. Therefore, the first pilot study using this questionnaire showed that the instructions were not precise and clear. The participants did not know how to answer the questions as there were many redundant questions. This was then amended to remove the redundancy and repeated questions in different forms. After amending it, a second pilot study was done. This showed improvement as there were no questions asked which caused any doubts.  The second pilot study was considered to be successful. The participants involved were then given the final erosion of the questionnaire. They were informed about the aim of the questionnaire in order to understand the questions.

It is important to analyse and interpret the collected data carefully. The collected data were interpreted objectively. The changes in food intake pattern and practice amongst Kuala KubuBharu Indian women in confinement will be analysed in the next chapter. All the collected data will be analysed and interpreted focusing on the aim of this research.

3.9. Data analysis

Preceding the data gathering process is the analysis which is designed to understand the information gathered from the data. The analysis part in qualitative research is different in quantitative research. This is because; quantitative adopts a number based approach in which the responders are forced to choose between agreeing and disagreeing. This is different in quantitative research which is more of an interview form that the responders can actually offer any form or answer to the asked questions. Analysing qualitative research can take different format and the format chosen basically depends on the researcher and the form of questions asked.

For this paper, the form of analysis chosen is based on interpretational (objective) analysis. This is a situation in which the response gathered are individually interpreted in relation to the actual meaning that the responder presents in the whole research process. This is because, the meanings presented can actually be different from one responders to the other, and it makes individual interpretation very important as it is the only way that the research can actually gain full insight into what the responder actually means.

In any case, the interpretation process for all the responses gathered is similar because the interpretations are based on linking findings to the set research objectives. Such an approach means that the research is actually able to centred findings in a more tailored way that makes it easy to identify common variables from all of the findings. Analysing the finding with common variables will also help to prove the stated hypotheses and it will also increase the chances of achieving the research objective through an inter-relational interpretation of idea in a way that it creates coherence between data gathered and actually meaning generated from the gathered data.

3.10. Responder’s profile

Basically, the responders are defined based on the notion that they must be Indian women and residing in Kuala KubuBharu. The responders were not pre-organized, but instead were chosen based on the assumption that they have the necessary skills, knowledge and understanding to impact positively on the research process. The responders are grouped into three sections as described below and each of the sections has 3 responders.

3.10.1 Section A: Elders – This section is made up of women between the ages of 46-60 and they represent the elderly age in the sense that they have the highest possibility of having experienced confinement and understand what food intake under confinement feels like for Indian women. Even when they have never experienced confinement, it can also be argued that they might have a friend who has experienced such and it will inevitably contribute to their understanding and perspective of what food intake under confinement is like.

3.10.2 Section B: Intermediate Generation – this section of responders make up women between the ages of 35 – 45. This group represent the link between women in the section A and women in the section B. They also represent the link between what food intake under confinement used to be, and what it actually looks like in the present day.

3.10.3 Section C: New Generation women – this groups is made up of women between the ages of 24 – 34, and they are women who were born in the time that technological advancement was growing heavily. As such, they represent the new view of what food intake under confinement should be like, and what the future trends will also look like.

As stated earlier, each of these groups are made up of three women, and this brings the total number of responders to 9. As such, the data analysis section will detail an analysis of nine responses and then conclude with a comparative view of how the responses are inter-related.

3.11. Data quality

The quality of data gathered in this research is measured on the ability of the responder to meet set criterion. As identified earlier, the responders have to be Indian women and residing in Kuala KubuBharu, and on the same note, they also have to fall within the age category described above. As such, it can be concluded that the gathered data exhibit high level of quality, and is based on the fact that responders meet the descriptions above.

Additionally, the responders seem to be passionate with the research process after the objectives of the research where made know, which increased their participation enigma and improve the overall quality of their response. The research also took extra care to ensure that the response pattern was not influenced in any way by external forces such as persuasive approaches that forces the responder to present answers in the interest of the research paper.

3.11.1. Reliability

Based on the quality definition above, it can also be stated that findings from this paper are reliable. This is because the research process was designed in such a way that coherences is enhanced in the data gathering stage, and the responders were also given the right room to present answers on their own view. Additionally, the interpretation of the response was based on the clear understanding of what the responder was actually saying and established link between the response and the research objectives. Overall, the fact that the whole research process was actually undertaken in a realistic ground that establishes a clear base for understanding and argumentation makes the gathered data reliable and as such, it will positively impact on the data analysis and findings.

3.11.2. Validity

As of the time of gathering this data, there was no other similar research done with respect to the above research topic and the subject being researched about. This creates a high sense of validity in the sense that the findings from this paper were not influenced by findings from any other related paper. The gathered data are also valid because it is the actual response form the responders and not influences, misinterpreted or manipulated in any way by the research.

3.12. Ethical considerations

In the course of gathering and analysing the data, numerous ethical issues were reoccurring. Primary research has been characterized with numerous ethical issues, and the reason is because some researchers are always trying to ensure that gathered data and finding from analysis meet their set objectives. However, this was not applicable in this paper. Some of the ethical issues encountered and addressed are:

3.12.1 Proposing answers for responders – since this is a face-to-face survey, responders who had issues with the questionnaire asked questions. During the course of addressing responders’ questions, the interviewer might directly or indirectly influence their answers by focusing more on the negative or positive influence of the answer. In order to eliminate such ethical issue, the interviewers were trained on ensuring that they don’t deviate from the focus of the questionnaire and don’t interfere with the responders’ choice by either directly or indirectly convincing them to present a particular answer through their explanation of the questions.

3.12.2 Manipulation of data - the gathered data re really hefty and not all people approached had intension of complying. As such, there was also a temptation of the interviewer to fill the unanswered questionnaires or manipulate the gathered data to ensure favourable findings. However, the research have been trained numerously on the importance of ensuring reliability by keeping data genuine and the influence of manipulated data on the quality of a research. As such, none of these unethical practices was conducted in this research.  

3.13. Chapter summary

The design of any research paper is very important because it plays an important role in determining whether the paper will be able to achieve its set objectives. As such, this paper was not different in any form because it is important to design the research process in a way that assurance is ensured about the high potential of meeting set objectives and impacting positively in the field of the research.

This chapter focuses on detailing the research process, and such focus meant that all the research variables were discussed as well as how these variables will be loaded into the research paper. Other features such as the responders profile and the data gathering process.

                                                                      CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

4.1. Chapter introduction

The focus of this chapter is to analyse all gathered data. As describe earlier, this is a qualitative research and the findings from the research will b objectively analysed. The implication is that data gathered from the whole research process will be analysed individually, and it will eventually aid in the overall understanding of the research paper. In any case, the analysis will be done in such a way that the actually objectives of the paper and stated research hypotheses are incorporated into the analysis.

4.2: Pattern for gathering response and its influence on actual response provides

The responses were gathered by the research in a written form. The researcher was close by the responder with a laptop and was typing in the answers presented by the responder. As such, there might be cases where the actual response was not written as stated by the responder, but the fact still remains that the meaning if the same. For instance, where a responder made grammatical errors in the response, the research made necessary corrections before putting in the response into this paper.

4.2. Responder one

Introduction: Good day madam, we are glad that you have decided to participate in this research, and we promise to be diligent in dealing with you, with respect to situational difficulties that you might experience in the course of the research. Basically, the purpose of this research is to understand the changes in the food intake practices and patterns amongst Indian women that reside in Kuala KubuBharu during the period of confinement. This research is designed to understand how the changes can be either enhanced or mitigated in order to ensure that Indian women in Kuala KubuBharu and other women across Malaysia are given the right opportunity to understand the best ways to eat healthy and live better lives.
BIO-DATA AND SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS
Age = 52 Gender = Female Race = Indian-Malay Confinement experience = She has experienced confinement at her early marriage years and after giving birth to her 2 kids.
QUESTION 1
Do you know what confinement period is? Actually it is defined in this research as a period in which you were restricted from moving around and had to stay at the same place for a period that is more than one months. A good example is women who are housewives and don’t have any job, so they just stay at home to take care of their kids and the house in general.	Yes my dear. I have experienced such. I think about three times. The first was when I first got married and I was a house wife, the second was when I gave birth to my first child, and the third time was when I gave birth to my second child. Besides this period, there are also other times that I might have experienced being at the same place for a long time, but these three times are the most significant.
So before you were confined to a place, how was your food intake? Was it based on culture such as the Indian cuisine or was it based on your personal choice?	Both. For we Indians, we have a variety of foods, and the fact is that the type of food we decide to consume is basically on choice but it is not surprising to see people’s food consumption being influenced by culture because culture plays an important role in our lives. For instance, if I decide to eat now, the first dish that will come into my mind will be an Indian dish, but that doesn’t mean that I can’t eat other local dishes. If there is no Indian dish available, then I will probably eat the local dish as long as it is what I want to eat. Also, when we go to occasions, you have no choice of food. You will have to eat whatever is there for you. Sometimes it can be Indian, or other local foods or even a foreign food. The role that culture plays is basically on defining the method and approach for eating. For example, you don’t accept food from all people, but instead you accept from people whom you know and food is seen as a good gift which denotes care and love. So my food intake is based on taste and availability of food, and not mainly on a fixed patter of cultural influence.
Thanks. That was a nice response. So, how was your food intake during the period of confinement? Was it also based on taste and availability of was it based on other factors?	It depends. I said it depends because there are different forms of confinement. So the food intakes are different. For instance, when I am in confinement because of child birth, the food intake will be based on consuming foods that are will help me to recover quickly and heal the internal injuries sustained during the period of childbirth. But if I am in confinement because I am a housewife and other related issues, the food intake will be based mainly on choice and availability. Nobody can force me to eat what I don’t want and I won’t be eating in order to get healed from any injury.
Health wise how is the food intake amongst women in confinement in the past compared to the intake amongst women in confinement in the present time?	It is more of less the same. Because like I said, the type of food that women eat before and after childbirth is highly influenced by their health as they seek to maintain a good living and be healthy on their own.  However, they choice and availability influences my food intake. So for me it is still the same when compared with my past and my present.

4.3 Responder two

BIO-DATA AND SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS
Age = 30 Gender = Female Race = Indian-Malay Confinement experience = Yes.
QUESTION 1
Do you know what confinement period is? Actually it is defined in this research as a period in which you were restricted from moving around and had to stay at the same place for a period that is more than one months. A good example is women who are housewives and don’t have any job, so they just stay at home to take care of their kids and the house in general.	Based on your elaborations I understand what confinement is all about. I have also been confined to a place for a period that is higher than 3 months.
So before you were confined to a place, how was your food intake? Was it based on culture such as the Indian cuisine or was it based on your personal choice?	Food for me something that doesn’t have any pattern actually. This is because I can east anything so long as I feel like eating such. Basically I am not a social eater but I do eat to satisfy my wants and this is how food feels for me.  This is also the way it was before I became confined to a specific place
Thanks. That was a nice response. So, how was your food intake during the period of confinement? Was it also based on taste and availability of was it based on other factors?	It is still based on choice. Once I am hungry I will look around the house and eat whatever fell like eating, but the difference between this time and the period I was not under confinement is that sometimes the food I want to eat is not available and I am forced to eat whatever was available. But it is still on the same bases of satisfying my wants and hunger level.
Health wise how is the food intake amongst women in confinement in the past compared to the intake amongst women in confinement in the present time?	It was much better outside confinement. This is because I has access to all I needed in order to maintain good health standards, but this was not possible in confinement as I east based on availability and sometimes the food I eat are not that healthy, and I also don’t exercise much like walking.

4.4 Responder 3

BIO-DATA AND SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS
Age = 58 Gender = Female Race = Indian-Malay Confinement experience = Yes
QUESTION 1
Do you know what confinement period is? Actually it is defined in this research as a period in which you were restricted from moving around and had to stay at the same place for a period that is more than one months. A good example is women who are housewives and don’t have any job, so they just stay at home to take care of their kids and the house in general.	Yes I have been under confinement. I think that most women must have experienced confinement with the definition you presented especially if they have ever given birth to a child before as it is something that is synonymous with women.
So before you were confined to a place, how was your food intake? Was it based on culture such as the Indian cuisine or was it based on your personal choice?	It depends on the settings. For me it was wide at some point and also narrow at some other point. But in the general sense, it was wide because of the level of freedom I had to enjoy whatever I wanted. It doesn’t mean that I didn’t have such freedom when I was confined, but the time I was out of confinement was much free as I went out on numerous occasions with my friends and also went out for festivals and other gathering where eating was always a part of the event. So I can see it was more of a free experience and I can eat whatever I want to eat so long as it is available.
Thanks. That was a nice response. So, how was your food intake during the period of confinement? Was it also based on taste and availability of was it based on other factors?	Like a said earlier, my eating pattern was much wide, and from that statement you can easy that my eating pattern wasn’t that wide in the period of confinement. As far as I am concerned the main reason is because my movement was restricted and as such I had little time for going out to eat or eat out with friends.
Health wise how is the food intake amongst women in confinement in the past compared to the intake amongst women in confinement in the present time?	I think I was more health conscious during the period of confinement because I had little to eat and I always took out time to ensure that whatever I eat is well prepared. The period of confinement also meant that I cook myself and as such the eating pattern was well aligned to health.

4.5 Fourth responder

BIO-DATA AND SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS
Age = 29 Gender = Female Race = Indian-Malay Confinement experience = Yes
QUESTION 1
Do you know what confinement period is? Actually it is defined in this research as a period in which you were restricted from moving around and had to stay at the same place for a period that is more than one months. A good example is women who are housewives and don’t have any job, so they just stay at home to take care of their kids and the house in general.	Yes I have, and it was the period I lost my mother. I was not actually forced to but I didn’t feel like going anywhere and I felt so down.
So before you were confined to a place, how was your food intake? Was it based on culture such as the Indian cuisine or was it based on your personal choice?	It was based on both choice and availability. I said both because sometimes when I have money the food that I want to eat might not be available and sometimes when they are available, the money might not be there.
Thanks. That was a nice response. So, how was your food intake during the period of confinement? Was it also based on taste and availability of was it based on other factors?	Actually I didn’t have the appetite to eat and I must be honest with you that it was really poor that my family started worrying about my deteriorating weight as I kept losing weight uncontrollably. The main reason is because I felt so sad about my mother’s death and I couldn’t seem to want to eat anything even when I was persuaded and forced by my dad.
Health wise how is the food intake amongst women in confinement in the past compared to the intake amongst women in confinement in the present time?	I was more health conscious during the period that I wasn’t in confinement because I had all that I needed and as such I can select what is right for the time and consumers healthily. This was different during the period that I was in confinement anyways as it didn’t care much about my health.

4.6 Fifth responder

BIO-DATA AND SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS
Age = 24 Gender = Female Race = Indian-Malay Confinement experience = Yes
QUESTION 1
Do you know what confinement period is? Actually it is defined in this research as a period in which you were restricted from moving around and had to stay at the same place for a period that is more than one months. A good example is women who are housewives and don’t have any job, so they just stay at home to take care of their kids and the house in general.	Yes.
So before you were confined to a place, how was your food intake? Was it based on culture such as the Indian cuisine or was it based on your personal choice?	In our house you don’t have choice of what to eat. Basically, you have to eat whatever is in the house of which other people are also eating. So I can say that my food pattern is based on availability in the sense that I eat whatever is in the house.
Thanks. That was a nice response. So, how was your food intake during the period of confinement? Was it also based on taste and availability of was it based on other factors?	It is still the same view of availability. Even when I was confined at a place my patter was still based on the food that is available.
Health wise how is the food intake amongst women in confinement in the past compared to the intake amongst women in confinement in the present time?	There is no much different. The fact is that I am very conscious of my health and it doesn’t matter whether I am in confinement or not. I always take extra time to ensure that I meet the necessary nutrition standards as I believe that health is wealth and the most important thing in life is maintaining good health as it will result in a subsequent increase in the potential for us to live longer here on earth

4.7 Sixth Responder

BIO-DATA AND SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS
Age = 40 Gender = Female Race = Indian-Malay Confinement experience = Yes
QUESTION 1
Do you know what confinement period is? Actually it is defined in this research as a period in which you were restricted from moving around and had to stay at the same place for a period that is more than one months. A good example is women who are housewives and don’t have any job, so they just stay at home to take care of their kids and the house in general.	Yes. Many times.
So before you were confined to a place, how was your food intake? Was it based on culture such as the Indian cuisine or was it based on your personal choice?	Food intake? Well I don’t really know how to answer this question. In am not that the food type, but the fact is that I experienced quite a number of changes during the time I was not in confinement and I always ate whatever I felt like eating.
Thanks. That was a nice response. So, how was your food intake during the period of confinement? Was it also based on taste and availability of was it based on other factors?	Still the same. I eat whatever I feel like eating but my food practice changed. For instance, I had little ice creams and other deserts because they were not easily available. I think I prefer the period that I was not under confinement because I can eat whatever I feel like eating.
Health wise how is the food intake amongst women in confinement in the past compared to the intake amongst women in confinement in the present time?	There is a difference in terms of health related issues. I think I was much more conscious during the period of confinement because I was having access to the internet frequently and as such I learned more about health and became very health conscious. I consumed a lot of vegetables and fruits and they really helped me maintain healthy balance because I am a fan of junky foods.

4.8 Seventh responder

BIO-DATA AND SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS
Age = 35 Gender = Female Race = Indian-Malay Confinement experience = Yes
QUESTION 1
Do you know what confinement period is? Actually it is defined in this research as a period in which you were restricted from moving around and had to stay at the same place for a period that is more than one months. A good example is women who are housewives and don’t have any job, so they just stay at home to take care of their kids and the house in general.	A couple of times. Well I was basically a house wife after my marriage and was confined to my house in order to take care of everything about the house. Even when I started working, I was still confined as a result of giving birth. So I have experienced confinement a lot.
So before you were confined to a place, how was your food intake? Was it based on culture such as the Indian cuisine or was it based on your personal choice?	Before being confined? Well you need to understand that it is not so easy to differentiate the food intake because the fact is that I have to eat in order to survive and I thank God for making the food readily available. My food intake and practice was based mainly on Indian cuisine. It is what I was raised up with. However, I also enjoy the foods of other people and culture as food for me is some sort of heritage and describes the way in which people around certain places behave. The summary will come in the form of me being able to eat whatever I feel like but mainly it is Indian or Malaysian dishes.
Thanks. That was a nice response. So, how was your food intake during the period of confinement? Was it also based on taste and availability of was it based on other factors?	Like I said, I have experienced different forms of confinement and my food intake depends on the form of confinement. When I was a house wife, I had the job of taking care of the family and such included making available meals for the family to consume. So my food intake was very perfect and I dished out the best for the family. During the period that followed my childbirth, there were noticeable changes anyways as my food intake was based more on consumption of some of the local dishes that are available in Indian communities in order to help heal my wound.
Health wise how is the food intake amongst women in confinement in the past compared to the intake amongst women in confinement in the present time?	Health is not much an issue for me because no matter what I eat I will still be slim. But if I am to compare between the period I was in confinement and those that I was not, I will tell you that the period of confinement is must better because I seem to consume more of fruits and healthy foods which I do prepare by myself at home, but the period that I was not in confinement was different as I do consume foods outside and sometimes these foods are not prepared with the best ingredients or under the best hygiene. So I would say that the period of confinement is much better than the period I was not in confinement.

4.9 Responder Eight

BIO-DATA AND SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS
Age = 40 Gender = Female Race = Indian-Malay Confinement experience = Yes
QUESTION 1
Do you know what confinement period is? Actually it is defined in this research as a period in which you were restricted from moving around and had to stay at the same place for a period that is more than one months. A good example is women who are housewives and don’t have any job, so they just stay at home to take care of their kids and the house in general.	Yeah! I have been confined to a place for a period that is more than 3 months. However, you need to understand that it didn’t restrict me from moving around but my freedom of movement was not so much open.
So before you were confined to a place, how was your food intake? Was it based on culture such as the Indian cuisine or was it based on your personal choice?	I am a very health conscious person and in the Indian culture, food is something that we must properly manage in order to ensure that we don’t adopt poor food habits. Food also deals with health and lifestyle, so the way you eat can primarily be used to describe who you are and how health you can be. so I am very conscious about my food eating habits prior to the period of my confinement and I always made sure that whatever I eat is healthy. Basically, I am a vegetarian so I eat all kinds of vegetarian cuisine which some of them are non-Indian.
Thanks. That was a nice response. So, how was your food intake during the period of confinement? Was it also based on taste and availability of was it based on other factors?	It was a bit out of control because I always felt hungry while staying at home and as such I do consume lots of food in the process. Another reason for that is because lots of food where available and nobody was at home. So I always eat whatever I feel like eating.
Health wise how is the food intake amongst women in confinement in the past compared to the intake amongst women in confinement in the present time?	Based on my earlier statement, you can see that I am a very health conscious person and as such I do take extra time to ensure that whatever I eat is healthy irrespective of whether I was I confinement or not. This is because I believe that healthy foods will help mw grow better and maintain good life, and food intake patter and practices is also a clear illustration of what kind of person I am, so I need to show people that I am responsible through my eating habit.

4.10 Ninth Responder

BIO-DATA AND SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS
Age = 48 Gender = Female Race = Indian-Malay Confinement experience = Yes
QUESTION 1
Do you know what confinement period is? Actually it is defined in this research as a period in which you were restricted from moving around and had to stay at the same place for a period that is more than one months. A good example is women who are housewives and don’t have any job, so they just stay at home to take care of their kids and the house in general.	I think so. I said I think so because confinement is not part of my life but I have been at a single place for the period of time you specified.
So before you were confined to a place, how was your food intake? Was it based on culture such as the Indian cuisine or was it based on your personal choice?	In our house you don’t have choice of what to eat. Basically, you have to eat whatever is in the house of which other people are also eating. So I can say that my food pattern is based on availability in the sense that I eat whatever is in the house.
Thanks. That was a nice response. So, how was your food intake during the period of confinement? Was it also based on taste and availability of was it based on other factors?	During this period I consume more of junk foods as I was lazy to cook. Basically, I am a fan of eating outside and to be confined will definitely be a big issue to me
Health wise how is the food intake amongst women in confinement in the past compared to the intake amongst women in confinement in the present time?	I don’t think I am that heath conscious when it comes to consumption. My main desire is to eat whatever I feel like eating whenever I feel so.

4.11 interpretations of findings

From the review of literature presented above, it was noted that a number of changes is taking in the Malaysian food consumption culture, and such changes are being enhanced as a result of the country’s economic development which now means that more time is dedicated to work than it is towards leisure. This is because the more time an employee dedicates to work the better he or she will get paid. The advancement in industrialization also means an increase in the purchasing power of Malaysian and as such more people can now afford to eat out. Another indication which was always laid out is the fact that eating outside is cheaper than cooking at home. All these variables were put into consideration in the course of producing this qualitative research, and from the above analysis, a number of factors can be noted in the form of:

Availability influences food intake pattern amongst Indian women in Kuala KubuBharu – from the above analysis, a number of the respondents pointed out in their analysis. Both in their period of confinement and the periods in which they were not in confinement, the availability of food influences consumption pattern and practice. This is because while the respondents might have a defined food pattern and practice, they have no choice in cases here their defined food patterns are not available but to just consume whatever might be available. This is most manifested in the period of confinement because these women are restricted in a given place and as such don’t have the much needed freedom to choice any form of food but instead might affirm themselves with whatever is available.

There is an increase change towards eating out – unlike in the past decades, the finding from the analysis shows that the trend of eating out is increase in the Malaysian setting and also amongst Indian women in the region being studied. This is mainly because they feel that eating out will reduce the amount of time dedicated towards feeding and as such increase their potential of committing their time towards other things that will likely increase their individual achievements. Still on that same level, the increasing level of GDP in the country is also playing a contributory role in the food intake pattern and practice as respondents agree that the reason why they eat out is because they have the necessary resources required to ensure such.

The form of confinement determines the form of changes in food intake pattern and practice – this is another significant finding and it is based on the notion that changes in food intake pattern and practice is not something that happens from the air, but instead is based on a number of factors during the period of confinement and one of such factors is the form of confinement. For instance, it was noted from the analysis that women who were confined as a result of pregnancy has different food intake pattern that those confined for other reasons. These women confined because of pregnancy focused more on consuming food that will help heal their inner wounds and help them recover from the pregnancy pains, while other confined for other reasons consumed foods based on different patterns and practices. 

There is a change towards the consumption of foods rich in calories – in order to ensure that they stay ahead of the day in the form of daily hustles and bustles, there is a change amongst Indian women in the region studied, with the change being a shift in the consumption of foods that are rich in calories. This is because such food will help them gain the necessary energy required to keep pushing ahead the challenges that daily activities might bring along with it. Such change has also been accounted for in the review of literature and this finding serves as a support to the documentations noted in the literature.

The food intake pattern is still influenced by culture and no changes is noticed even when women are in confinement – the indication laid down by the analysis shows that the respondents still want to consume Indian cuisines as a result of the fact that it is what they were brought up with and it is their cultural value. On that note, even when these women were in confinement, there was not noticeable change in their food intake pattern and practice as the food consumption is still based on what is obtainable in the Indian culture.

The indication from the above analysis is that there are changes in the food intake practice and pattern, but such changes don’t mean a subsequent change in the cuisine. The changes come in the form of a growing trend towards the consumption of food outside as compared to the past trend in which foods where mainly prepared by these women. The trend as discussed is being influenced by the growing level of economic power on both individual and national level, which now means most of the Indian women can afford to eat outside as many times as they want and as such it is changing their food intake pattern from a home based pattern towards eating out. On the same hand, it was noticed that while these changes of eating out is noticeable, it doesn’t influence the choice of other cuisine over Indian cuisine as the responders accounted that they still prefer Indian cuisine over that of other culture. The implication is then that the changes will continue to expand towards eating outside and ordering home deliveries, but it will not shift their preference for Indian foods over that of other cultures.

                                                                      CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION

5.1.      Chapter introduction

Following the completion of the data analysis, this chapter will seem to discuss the findings in relation to the stated hypotheses. Such discussion will look into understanding the influence of the literatures on the actual finding and how the findings can be applied in the real work setting.

5.2.      Prove of hypotheses

HP1. Increasing level of globalization and advancement in technology is making Indian cuisines popular and it increases the consumption level of women in confinement as they can learn how to cook new foods from the Media.

The above analysis can be stated to be true and this is based on the notion highlighted by some of the responders idea that they are always close to the internet during the period of confinement and they use such opportunity to learn more about indian cuisines as well as other health issues, which influences their food intake pattern and practices

HP.2 There is a potential of shift in the consumption pattern of Kuala KubuBharu Indian women in confinement towards an increase in the intake of authentic Indian foods.

This statement is true as most of the responders noted that irrespective of whether they are in confinement or not, Indian cuisine is always their most preferred choice and they also take cultural issues into consideration and as such their desire is always geared towards consuming some of the delicious Indian cuisine that is in line with their taste.

HP3: The emergence of Fast Food is changing the consumption practices of Indian women in Kuala KubuBharu from consuming foods that are solely cooked at home, to sometimes consuming foods that are ordered outside from restaurants.

This is one of the most significant discoveries in both the literature review and the data analysis, and it is centred on the notion that the increase economic level of Indian women in the country, which is as a result of increase in the growth of Malaysian economy, is influencing a shift towards the consumption of fast foods. This was accounted for by all the responders and their reason for such change are based on two assumptions that: it is cheaper to eat outside than to eat inside, and the fast food joint offers more convenience as compared with eating inside the house.

HP4:  The level of trust established between Indian women in Kuala KubuBharuand the food chain can influences their food intake pattern and practices while in confinement, with the influence being higher when the level of trust is higher and vice versa.

This was not clearly established in the response gathered, but there is a notable point in the form that the responders generally agree on the need to maintain good and healthy eating, and as such, there is a possibility of these responders choosing foods that have the higher potential of ensuring such practice.

HP5: There is a change in the consumption of Food amongst Indian women in Kuala KubuBharu, which is experiencing a shift towards the consumption of high energy foods in order to have the strength of meeting their demanding task while in confinement.

This is true and in line with the findings. This is because some of the responders agree that there is a change in their consumption pattern and such change is geared towards eating foods that have the potential of increasing their daily productivity and as such energy influences the choice of food intake pattern positively. This is because the current economic setting of the Malaysian economy requires people to contribute more of their time towards production in order to enhance the overall productivity of the country. On that note, the consumption of energy giving foods is increasing significantly.

HP 6: The pattern of food intake amongst Indian women in Kuala KubuBharu is highly influenced by the level of control exercised over them, and pattern will shift towards consuming whatever they are directed to consume.

The final hypothesis that will be looked into is that of the influences of the level of control that consumers have on their pattern of food intake. This was noted in the case to be positive and it is based on the notion that the level of freedom or control that Indian women have influences their food intake pattern and practice positively. For instance, it was noted that if these women were housewives, they determine what will be consumed in their respective homes and as such adopted whatever best practices they so desire to have the higher chances of influencing the nutritious consumption of the family positively.

5.3.      Chapter summary

From the above case, the summary is that the stated hypotheses are in line with the discoveries made in this paper and the main reason for such is that the literature review sued in the development of the hypotheses are in line with the research objectives and questions. The implication is that there is a shift in the food intake pattern and practices of Indian women in Kuala KubuBharu and such change is shifting towards the consumption of fast food as opposed to the traditional consumption of foods that are prepared at homes.

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSIONS

6.1.      Chapter introduction

Following the successful completion of this paper, this section will look to conclude the paper by highlighting the discoveries that have been made and how such discoveries can be aligned to what is obtainable in the real world setting.

6.2.      Reflection of research objectives

Early on in this paper, the objective was set to be to conduct a study on understanding the changes in food intake pattern and practices amongst Indian women in Kuala KubuBharu, Malaysia. Basically, thee are notable changes and new trends in the food intake pattern and practice, and understanding such settings in line with Indian women is very significant because it will help to highlight the factors that are influencing such changes and how such changes can either be enhanced or mitigated.

6.3.      Implications for research

The implication of the research objective to academic research is very significant in the sense that a number of studies have been conducted on the topic of discussion and such research have developed new trends and views as to what the topic of discussion is all about and also presented new discoveries in line with the food intake pattern and practices amongst Indian women in Kuala KubuBharu. As such, this paper is very significant because it will aid in supporting the theories that have been developed either positively or negatively through new evidence that will be presented in the research analysis.

6.4.      Implications for practice

On the practical aspect of it, this paper is also significant as an understanding of the changes in food intake pattern and practices will help companies and managers alike to understand the new trends in demand and the form of foods that are presently preferred by the subject. Such an understanding is very significant because it will help in the development, production and distribution of foods that are mostly consumed by the responders and as such it will aid the performance of the company positively as they will be able to increase their sales through the production of foods that are on high demands. Still on the same practical aspect part of it’s, this paper will help practitioners to understand the influences of cultures and other social values on food intake and the changes that have been noted over the years. On that note, the practitioners will be well positioned to establish new approaches that will be adopted to enhance the food culture amongst Indian women in the region being studied.

6.5.      Overall Conclusion

This paper has been significant in demonstrating the recent changes in food intake pattern and practices amongst Indian women in Kuala KubuBharu Malaysia, and the noted change is moving towards a shift in consumption of fast food. The implication is that the customers for that respective industry will increase and it becomes important for the industry to understand the individual needs of customers in the industry and put in necessary efforts to ensure that these customers are always offered the best of services. The end point will be a subsequent increase in customer loyalty and brand profitability.

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